Grammar

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
As the name suggests, these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved.
Example
  • Dogs that like cats are very unusual.
In this sentence we understand that there are many dogs, but it is clear that we are only talking about the ones that like cats.
Punctuation
  • Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.
Relative pronouns
The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses:
 
Person
Thing
Place
Time
Reason
Subject
who/that
which/that



Object
who/whom/that/
which/that/
where
when
why
Possessive
whose
whose
 
 
 
Notes:
  1. The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun.
This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence:
The woman
who/that
spoke at the meeting
was very knowledgeable.
Noun, subject of
main clause
relative pronoun referring to 'the woman', subject of 'spoke'
verb + rest of relative clause
verb + rest of main clause
  1. Who, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common in spoken English.
  2. The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of the clause
The woman
that
the man loved
was living in New York.
Noun, subject of main clause
relative pronoun, referring to 'the woman', object of 'loved'
verb + rest of relative clause
verb + rest of main clause.
(You can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is normally followed by another subject + verb.)
4. Whose is used for things as well as for people.
Examples
  • The man whose car was stolen.
  • A tree whose leaves have fallen.
5. Whom is very formal and is only used in written English. You can use who/that, or omit the pronoun completely :
  • The doctor whom/who/that/ I was hoping to see wasn't on duty.
6. That normally follows words like something, anything, everything, nothing, all, and superlatives.
Examples
  • There's something that you should know.
  • It was the best film that I've ever seen.
  • A clown is someone who makes you laugh.
  • An elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries.
  • The plums that were in the fridge were delicious. I have eaten them.
  • Where are the plums (that) I put in the fridge?
  • Has anyone seen the book I was reading?
  • Nothing that anyone does can replace my lost bag.
  • Let's go to a country where the sun always shines.
  • They live in the house whose roof is full of holes.
***************************************************************


Question Forms and Reported Speech
1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did':
  • "Where does Peter live?" àShe asked him where Peter lived.
2. Yes / no questions: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether + clause:
  • "Do you speak English?" àHe asked me if I spoke English.
  • "Are you British or American?" àHe asked me whether I was British or American.
  • "Is it raining?" àShe asked if it was raining.
  • "Have you got a computer?" àHe wanted to know whether I had a computer.
  • "Can you type?" àShe asked if I could type.
  • "Did you come by train?" àHe enquired whether I had come by train.
  • "Have you been to Bristol before?" àShe asked if I had been to Bristol before.
3. Question words:
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change.
  • "What is your name?" he asked me. àHe asked me what my name was.
  • "How old is your mother?", he asked. àHe asked how old her mother was.
  • The policman said to the boy, "Where do you live?" àThe policeman asked the boy where he lived.
  • "What time does the train arrive?" she asked. àShe asked what time the train arrived.
  • "When can we have dinner?" she asked. àShe asked when they could have dinner.
  • Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?" àPeter asked the John why he was so late.
***************************************************************

Modal Verbs

Modal Verbs have some characteristics which are different from other verbs, and they are:

  • they don`T have all the different tenses avaiable;
  • they are used in questions as auxiliary verbs;
  • they are followed by a bare infinitive;
  • the same modal verb can express different meanings.
Can is a modal verb and is used to express:
  • ability or lack of ability; Ex:  I can`t get everything done on my own.
  • possibility/impossibility; Ex: You can`t switch to a telework system.
  • permission;  Ex: Can I work from home two days a week?
Note

Can cannot be used in all tenses. When we need to express the above mentioned ideas in a continous or perfect tense, we use be able to.

Should is also a modal verb and is used to:
  • ask and give advice; Ex: You should make your work area separate.

May is another modal verb and is used to express:
  • possibility/impossibility; Ex: You may need some help with the business.
  • certainty/uncertainty;Ex: Teleworking may be the solution to your problems
Subscrever: Comentários (Atom)